Sima Xiangru

Lore & Background

Sima Xiangru was born in the commandery of Shu (now Sichuan Province), likely in Chengdu, though the 19th-century scholar Wang Peixun proposed he may actually have been from Pengzhou (modern Peng'an County). He originally bore the name Sima Quanzi and took the courtesy name Zhangqing. As a youth, he admired the Warring States period leader Lin Xiangru and adopted the name 'Xiangru.' He was a studious child who read widely, and a lover of swordsmanship. Around 150 BC, while in his twenties, he traveled to the imperial capital Chang'an and obtained a court appointment 'by virtue of property,' meaning he had at least 40,000 copper cash. He was made a mounted military attendant to Emperor Jing of Han, a low-ranking position that allowed him to accompany the emperor and court on imperial excursions. Sima did not seem to enjoy this position, likely because Emperor Jing and his mostly Legalist advisors were known for their dislike of literary embellishment. In 149 BC, he moved to Liang to become a guest scholar at the court of Liu Wu, Prince of Liang, where he began composition of his 'Fu on Sir Vacuous.' After the prince's death in 143 BC, he returned to Shu in near poverty. His fortunes improved when Wang Ji, the magistrate of Linqiong, took him on as a protégé and introduced him to Zhuo Wangsun, a wealthy iron manufacturer; Sima immediately fell in love with Zhuo's recently widowed daughter Zhuo Wenjun. In 142 BC, the following year, Sima and Zhuo Wenjun eloped together. Sima's biography states that the couple supported themselves by running an ale shop until Zhuo's father was forced by public shame into recognizing their marriage, giving the couple 1,000,000 copper cash, 100 servants, and valuables from the dowry of Zhuo's first marriage.

Reader's Guide

Sima Xiangru is a central figure in the history of Classical Chinese poetry, primarily for his development of the fu rhapsody form. He applied new metrical rhythms to lines of poetry, mixing them with prose, and established several common topics for the genre that influenced later centuries. His surviving works include six complete fu and a fragment, with two of disputed authenticity among modern scholars. The 5th-century anthology 'Selections of Refined Literature' preserves three of his fu, as well as four non-fu pieces: his 'Proclamation on Ba and Shu,' 'Refuting the Elders of Shu,' 'Letter Admonishing Against Hunting,' and 'Essay on the Feng and Shan Sacrifices.' He also wrote in the Chu ci style during its renaissance and composed lyrics in the yuefu formal style. A dictionary entitled 'Fan jiang' is listed among his works, but only five fragments of it have survived. His collected works appear in the bibliography catalogs of the Sui and Tang dynasties but seem to have been lost during the Song dynasty; modern versions are Qing dynasty reconstructions pieced together from quotations in other works. Beyond poetry, Sima served as an imperial envoy and official, though his political career was marked by a dismissal for bribery. His influence extends to later art and artists, cementing his legacy as a master of the fu form and a key poet of the Han dynasty.

Did You Know?

• Sima Xiangru originally bore the name Sima Quanzi before adopting the name 'Xiangru' out of admiration for the Warring States period leader Lin Xiangru.
• He obtained his first court appointment 'by virtue of property,' meaning he had at least 40,000 copper cash.
• Sima and his wife Zhuo Wenjun supported themselves by running an ale shop after eloping in 142 BC.
• Emperor Wu supposedly exclaimed 'Why do I not have the privilege of being this man's contemporary?!' upon reading Sima's 'Fu of Sir Vacuous,' though modern scholars consider this account inaccurate.
• A dictionary entitled 'Fan jiang' is listed among Sima's works, but only five fragments of it have survived.

Architect of the Fu Rhapsody

Sima Xiangru is generally regarded as the greatest of all composers of Chinese fu rhapsodies, a genre he either invented or at least developed. His approach to poetry was distinctive: he introduced new metrical rhythms into verse lines and blended them with prose passages, creating a hybrid form that would define a major literary tradition for centuries. Beyond the fu, he demonstrated remarkable versatility, composing in the Chu ci style during its period of renewed popularity, and also writing lyrics in what later became classified as the yuefu formal style. He also provided several of the recurring thematic subjects that would become standard topics for the fu genre in the centuries that followed. His magnum opus, the fu on the Shanglin imperial hunting park (originally likely titled 'Fu on the Excursions and Hunts of the Son of Heaven'), stands as the crowning achievement of this form. The work was composed on bamboo slips using brushes provided by the imperial chief steward of writing, at the direct request of Emperor Wu, who was so pleased that he immediately appointed Sima to a position at the imperial court.

The Elopement and a Father's Reluctant Blessing

After the death of Prince Liu Wu in 143 BC, Sima returned to Shu destitute, living in near poverty. His fortunes shifted when Wang Ji, the magistrate of Linqiong, took him as a protégé and introduced him to Zhuo Wangsun, a wealthy iron manufacturer. Sima immediately fell in love with Zhuo's recently widowed daughter, Zhuo Wenjun. In 142 BC, the following year, the two eloped together. Sima's biography states that the couple supported themselves by running an ale shop until Zhuo's father was forced by public shame into recognizing their marriage. As a result, the couple received 1,000,000 copper cash, 100 servants, and valuables from the dowry of Zhuo's first marriage. Years later, during Sima's brief tenure as General of the Gentlemen of the Household, Emperor Wu dispatched him back to Shu to oversee a roadbuilding project. Upon arriving with his large entourage from the capital, Sima was proudly greeted by his father-in-law Zhuo Wangsun, who decided to bequeath to Zhuo Wenjun a large portion of his estate, equal to that of a son's. This generous inheritance made Sima and his wife independently wealthy, so that after Sima was dismissed from his post around 130 BC, he had no need for further employment.

Court Service and the Shanglin Commission

In 137 BC, the young Emperor Wu of Han summoned Sima to Chang'an. The traditional account states that the emperor happened across a copy of Sima's 'Fu of Sir Vacuous' and exclaimed, 'Why do I not have the privilege of being this man's contemporary?!' The account states that Yang Deyi, the keeper of the imperial hounds and a native of Shu, overheard the emperor's exclamation and informed him that Sima was the piece's author, whereupon Emperor Wu immediately had Sima summoned. Modern scholars have noted a number of logical inconsistencies in this traditional account and do not consider it to be accurate. In the subsequent, more credible portion of the story, Sima appeared before Emperor Wu and stated that he wished to compose a grand fu on the emperor's excursions and hunts. The emperor had the chief steward of writing give Sima a supply of brushes and bamboo slips which Sima used to compose his magnum opus, a fu on the imperial hunting reserve usually entitled 'Fu on the Shanglin Park,' though its original title was probably 'Fu on the Excursions and Hunts of the Son of Heaven.' The emperor was so pleased that he immediately appointed Sima to a position at the imperial court. Sima served Emperor Wu by composing fu for special court occasions, though none of these have survived. Around 131 BC, Sima traveled to Shu on an imperial mission to mediate a dispute between the local population and the area's oppressive governor, after which the emperor promoted him to General of the Gentlemen of the Household, a fairly high-ranking position. Sometime later, Sima was accused of taking bribes while on the mission and was summarily dismissed from his position. Although he continued to enjoy the emperor's favor and was brought back to court after several years, he never again served in a high-ranking position.

A Shu Youth in the Imperial Orbit

Sima Xiangru was born in the commandery of Shu (now Sichuan Province) in the early 2nd century BC. He probably was born in 179 BC, but some sources give it variously as 172, 171, or 169 BC. Most sources agree that he was born in Chengdu, although the 19th-century scholar Wang Peixun proposed he may actually have been from Pengzhou (modern Peng'an County). Little is known of Sima's family and ancestry. His family may have been descended from Sima Cuo, a Qin general who led Qin's invasion of Shu in the late 4th century BC. During his youth he is said to have been a studious child who read widely, and to have been a lover of swordsmanship. As a youth, Sima took the name 'Xiangru' out of admiration for the Warring States period leader Lin Xiangru. Around 150 BC, while in his twenties, Sima left his home in Shu and traveled to the imperial capital Chang'an. He received a court appointment 'by virtue of property,' which means he had at least 40,000 copper cash. He was made a mounted military attendant to Emperor Jing of Han, which was a low-ranking position but allowed Sima to accompany the emperor and the court on imperial excursions. Sima does not seem to have enjoyed this position, likely because Emperor Jing, and his mostly Legalist advisors, were known for their dislike of literary embellishment. In 149 BC, Sima moved to Liang to become a guest scholar at the court of Liu Wu, Prince of Liang, where he began composition of his 'Fu on Sir Vacuous.'